Persuasive Speaking (Is there any other kind?)

It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.  ~Aristotle

In ancient Rome, one of the measures of status and wealth was the marble statue.  The more statues you had in front of your home, the more status you had.  Consequently, there were a lot of reputable statue-makers, and, sadly, even a greater amount of less-than-reputable statue makers.  These statue makers would sell less than quality statues in order to make a quick buck.  The unscrupulous Roman stoneworkers would sometimes cut corners by applying a thick coating of paraffin wax to the marble, rather than taking the time to make it, or polish it properly.  After this process, it was near impossible to tell the difference between a high quality and a lower quality statue (until the statue owner got the statue home, and it sat out in the hot sun for a few hours and the wax melted).    So widespread was this shabby practice of applying wax, that the honest stoneworkers had to advertise their wares as being "sine cera," (seen cera), meaning literally “without wax”, to reassure their customers.  The word “sincere” derives from this, and while it literally means “without wax,” it has come to mean “without pretense,” “honest,” “straightforward.” 

What does this have to do with persuasive speaking?  I’m so glad you asked.  J  A persuasive speech should above all reflect sincerity.  A persuasive speaker must be without any wax---sincere in purpose and intent.  This is where you must show your passion in your topic selection, body language, words, and actions. 

·      With that said, let’s delve into the ins-and-outs of PERSUASIVE SPEAKING. 

·      This is the speech where language and delivery are most important. 

·      It is imperative that you deal directly with and effectively answer this question – WHY SHOULD MY AUDIENCE CARE?  This is IMPERATIVE!  Don’t just tell us why we care in your introduction and conclusion – remind us all the way through. 

·      You will write this speech out word for word, instead of using a mere outline.  (Why?  Because each word is very important in a persuasive speech). 

·      You will need to convey language effectively – no more slang or “dumbed-down” language. 

·      You will deliver this speech from memory.  (not memorization). 

·      This means a lot more practice and research. 

·      Don’t forget to use the point triangle. 

·      If you have problems with up-talking, now is the time to really work on it. Remember if you use a lot of up-talking, your credibility goes way down.  You must have credibility for persuasion. 

·      Visual aids are not needed, but you may use them.  Strict professionalism and visual aid guidelines will be followed though, so be careful to follow all the visual aid rules. 

·      In a persuasive speech, you must provide a call to action.  Provide something your audience can do.  For example - don’t just persuade us that child-labor in the world today is bad—give us something we can do about it—something that will either solve the problem, or significantly reduce the problem. 

·      With persuasive speaking, organizational tactics are vital. 

o   Problem – Solution:  Explain a problem that matters in our world today, and then give a solution to the problem that we can all participate in. 

o   Need – Plan:  Present a need, then present a plan to fix it. 

o   Refutation:  Refute a belief in the world today, and tell us why it needs to change, and what we can do about it.   

·      Especially Important: 

o   1.  Your purpose or goal.  What do you want your audience to do? 

a.     Make it significant. 

b.     Don’t preach to the choir. 

c.     Cite at least THREE credible sources. 

o   2.  Audience analysis.  What do they believe now?  What sorts of appeals are they likely to respond to? 

o   3.  Motivation is KEY.  You are trying to break audience momentum.  To bring about change. 

o   4.  Audience link.  You will NOT persuade without it. 

·      You will need to really consider delivery dynamics: 

o   Volume

o   Rate

o   Pitch

o   Repetition

o   Rhythm

o   Word emphasis

o   Pauses

o   Emotion

o   Appearance

o   Movement

o   Facial expressions/gestures

o   Eye contact

·      Aristotle, the Greek teacher/scientist (384-322 BC), who was a student of Plato, and teacher of Alexander the Great, was the author of over 170 works, 30 of which survived, and whose works we still consider as absolutely relevant today.  His work, The Rhetoric, is widely regarded as the most important work on persuasion ever published.   Aristotle tackled the question: how do we come to believe something or to believe we should act in a certain way in the absence of knowing “the truth”?   Aristotle details three major modes of proof.  Think of it as three ways that people are persuaded or that we come to believe things or to act upon things.   Aristotle taught that there were three appeals that were necessary in order to persuade someone of something: 

·      1.  Ethos--”ethical,” credibility appeal.  Sometimes we come to believe something or to act upon something simply because someone we trusted told us it was so.  Aristotle suggests that the source of the material--the perception of the person the persuasive appeal comes from--is the most powerful mode of persuasion.  Okay, to prove my geekiness, I’m going to liken these three appeals to characters from Star Trek.  Ethos can be likened to James T. Kirk or to Commander Riker of Star Trek fame.

o   Borrowed ethos.  You will need to borrow your ethos for a good portion of your speech.  Your credibility needs to come from your research of the “experts” in the field. 

·      2.  Pathos--”pathetic,” emotional appeal.  Sometimes we come to believe something or to act upon something simply because of a gut feeling or an appeal to our emotions.  We act out of fear and greed and also out of love and compassion.  We even act in certain ways because we are concerned about what others will think of us.  For us Star Trek fans, Pathos can be likened to Dr. McCoy or to Dianna Troi [no coincidence in that rhyme I think].

·      3.  Logos--”logical,” rational appeal.  Sometimes we come to believe something or to act upon something simply because someone gave us what we considered to be a "good reason."  Here is where we consider evidence and reasoning as parts of the persuasive process.  The Star Trek characters here can be likened to Spock or to Data.

·      Logos is the most complicated of the modes of proof and we examine it both to better use arguments in our speaking and writing, and also to become better critical thinkers when we are in audiences.

·      PROOF = ETHOS, PATHOS, & LOGOS

·      Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

·      This motivated sequence, developed in the mid-1930s by Alan Monroe (at Purdue University), is a five-step process that begins with arousing listeners’ attention and ends with calling for action.  This time-tested variant of the problem-solution pattern is particularly effective when you want your audience to do something—buy a product, donate to a cause, or persuade someone of something.  It is equally useful when you want listeners to reconsider their present way of thinking about something or to continue to believe as they do, but with greater commitment. 

·      Step One:  Attention: Address listeners’ core concerns, making the speech highly relevant to them.  This step is designed to gain the interest of the listeners. One of the biggest problems here is assuming you have the audience's attention. In fact, assuming the step as given causes problems throughout the entire speech. You cannot persuade someone unless you have his or her attention.  

·       Step two:  Need: Show listeners that they have an important need that must be satisfied or a problem that must be solved.  You want them to say to themselves, "I need to hear this," or "Something needs to be done about this!" Again, don't assume the need is obvious. Remember that this step involves need from the standpoint of the audience member.

·      Step three:   Satisfaction: Introduce your proposed solution to the problem.  Next, present a solution to the problem you presented in the Need step. Show how to satisfy the need. Scratch the itch. The Need step and the Satisfaction step appeal primarily to left-brained, logical thinking (although you always need some appeal to the right-brain thinking as well, especially in terms of clarifying information). In this step, you want the audience to think, "That will work!"

·      Step four:  Visualization: Provide listeners with a vision of anticipated outcomes associated with the solution.  This is where we get into true persuasion. The purpose of this step is to develop within your audience an image of the consequences of their choices. If you want them to do something, you have to help them create in their minds an image of the good things that will happen if they do what you want them to do. Or, help them imagine the bad consequences of not adopting the policy.   In this step you are appealing more to right-brain thinking; you want to get them emotionally as well as logically involved, and you want them to feel those consequences on a gut level. In the Satisfaction step, you wanted them to think, "That will work." In the Visualization step, you want them to think, "That will work for me. I can do that. I can see myself doing that."

·      Step five:  Action: Make a direct request of the listeners that involves reconsidering their present way of thinking about something, continuing to believe as they do but with renewed vigor, or implementing a new set of behaviors or plan of action.  The action step should move your audience to actually do something about your speech. To do this, you need to have some clear and specific action for them to take. "Somebody should do something" only frustrates them, because they have no direction. Even "give some money to this cause" lacks motivation. Tell them, "I want each of you to give just $10 to this. If you can do more, fine. But don't you agree that $10 is within reach of all of us?" Or whatever it is you want them to do. You should know from the beginning of your speech what exact action you are going to ask them to take.

·      Use of support material constitutes offering "good reasons" to accept a claim.

·      Types of support material: 

o   Examples

o   Statistics/facts

o   Testimony

·      All of these types of support material require that you:

o   1.  make accurate use

o   2.  evaluate and identify the source (beware bias)

o   3.  consider recentcy

o   4.  consider strength

·      Remember, audience analysis is crucial!  Some tips to consider about your audience: 

·      If you have a reluctant audience: 

o   1.  establish good will.  Build arguments based on shared values 

o   2.  present evidence from sources the audience will accept. 

o   3.  set modest goals – don’t strive for too much change at one time. 

o   4.  Use a multi-sided approach to show respect for your opposition while demonstrating that your position is better.  

·      The Boomerang Effect.  If you don’t show respect for your audience, you will see what’s called the Boomerang Effect.  The boomerang effect occurs when a person uses an argument that the audience perceives as so unfair that they begin to internally debate the speaker – in their mind coming up with all the reasons the speaker is wrong. Under those circumstances it is possible to create ANTI-persuasion. The person becomes more convinced of their original beliefs than before you began speaking. EX: An anti-Mormon corners you outside your religion class and tells you all the reasons why Joseph Smith was a fraud. What would you be thinking all that time? Would you be persuaded?

o   This can even occur if the speaker doesn’t attack the audience, but attacks a third party so unfairly that you mentally begin to come to their defense. EX: “All Illegal aliens are nothing more than dirty, uneducated, thieves.” What did you think when I said that? None of you are illegal aliens, but you probably still thought something like “that’s not fair..”

·      If you have an uncommitted audience: 

o   1.  Provide documented information from reliable sources. 

o   2.  Show listeners how your proposal is consistent with their needs – values. 

o   3.  Cite authorities the audience respects (borrowed ethos). 

o   4.  Be careful not to overstate your position. 

·      Motivating your audience to action: 

o   1.  Remind audience of values and beliefs that are at stake. 

o   2.  Stress the need for action by picturing/comparing results of action or inaction.  (This is what will happen if we do this, or this is what will happen if we don’t do anything). 

o   3.  Present specific step-by-step plan for action.  You MUST MUST MUST give your audience something to do. 

o   Urge audience commitment to your proposal.  

·      How to choose a great persuasive speaking topic: 

·      1.  Pick something you feel strongly about. If you don't feel strongly about your topic, how are you going to persuade the audience to feel the same way? Students sometime say, "But I don't feel strongly about anything!" Yes you do. Sit down with a piece of paper and brainstorm.

·      2.  Avoid your "hot button" topics. Don't pick something you feel too strongly about. Hot button topics are issues you feel so strongly about that it's hard for you to understand where the other side is coming from. In order to give a good persuasive speech, you need to understand the other side's point of view, because how else will you change it?

·      3.  Pick something controversial. It doesn't have to be extremely controversial, but you do need to present a topic that not everyone agrees with. Otherwise there's no persuasion going on, and it's not a very good persuasive speech. For example, don't give a speech on why smoking is bad for your health. Who's going to disagree with that?

·      4.  Avoid "tired topics." Tired topics are those that students pick all the time and that your instructor has heard over and over again. Yawn. Be creative. Here are some examples of tired topics:  

o   Why marijuana should be legal/illegal. 

o   Why the drinking age should be lower/higher. 

o   Abortion.

o   Why we shouldn’t smoke. 

o   Why we should we wear our seatbelts. 

o   Why we should exercise. 

o   Why we should eat right. 

o   Why we should be happy. 

·      5.  Pick something with real importance.  For instance – a controversial current event, campus, or local issue.  Having trouble thinking of a topic? Go read a newspaper. What's going on in the world?  Are there controversial issues around campus? Are there controversial issues in your college town? These topics will be very relevant to your audience members.

·      6.  Pick an issue of interest to the audience.  If you don’t know if they care or not, make them care.  Spend some time in your speech making them care.  If they don't care about your issue, they won't be persuaded.

·      7.  Pick a smaller part of a big issue. Don't try to change people's mind about a huge issue in your short speech, because you can't. Think you can change your classmates' mind about abortion in a 6-8 minute speech? Of course not. However, you might change their minds about a portion of this issue, like parental notification laws.

·      8.  Be cautious with issues that some audience members might find offensive. Speech topics that some students might consider to be racist, anti-gay, or something along those lines are not great topics. Think about this: the object of this speech is to persuade your audience. If some of your audience members feel offended on a personal level, they sure aren't going to be persuaded.

·      The Academic Elements of Persuasion. (DELIVERY DELIVERY DELIVERY!)

·      1.   Body language - make sure you have a proper posture. If your shoulders are sagging and your legs are crossed, you will not appear as being sincere and people will not accept your message.

·      2.  Articulation - articulation means how your total vocal process works. There are several steps to this entire process. You need to understand the process. First, you need air from the lungs, your vocal cords in your larynx must be working, your mouth and tongue must be in sync, and you have to make sure that you have got some saliva in your mouths to keep things oiled. You should be aware of your physical makeup to be able to understand how you speak.

·      3.  Pronunciation – you need to pronounce each word. You must avoid slang, except to make a point, and not slur the words. You must avoid saying, "you know," “like,” etc. 

·      4.  Pitch - pitch refers to the highs and lows of the voice. Whatever you do, you must avoid a monotone!

·      5.  Speed - the speed, or pace, is an important variable to control. Between 140-160 words per minute is the normal pace for a persuasive speech. Any faster and you may appear to be glib; any slower and you sound like you are lecturing. If you are not sure about your speed, tape them for one minute and then replay it and count the number of words you used in the minute. The human ear and brain can compile and decode over 400 spoken words per minute, so if you are going too slow your listeners' minds are going to start to wander as the brains finds other ways to keep themselves occupied.

·      6.  Pauses - the pause, or caesura, is a critical persuasive tool. When you want to emphasize a certain word, pause for one-two second before; this highlights the word. If you really want to punch it, pause before and after the word.

·      7.  Volume - volume is another good tool for a persuasive speech, but you should use it with caution. If you scream all the way through your speech, people will become accustomed to it and it will lose its effectiveness. Sometimes, a quiet statement can convey a lot of meaning as well. 

·      8.  Quality - quality of voice is gauged by the overall impact that your voice has on your listeners. Quality of voice is the net caliber of your voice, its character and attributes. You must try to keep the vocal quality high; it is what separates your voices from everyone else's.

·      9.  Variance - variance of vocal elements is the most important consideration of all.  One of the most persuasive speakers in modern history was Winston Churchill. One of his most remarkable qualities was his ability to vary the elements of his voice. He would start with a slow, laconic voice and then switch gears to a more rapid pace. People were light-headed after listening to him.  Even if you have no desire to run for political office, you can still use the tools of variance. Try to change your pitch, volume, and speed at least once every 30 seconds, if only for just one word. Never go more than one paragraph without a vocal variance. This keeps the audience locked into the speech, if for no other reason than it sounds interesting! Let your words speak for themselves; reflect your nature through your voices. If you use the word "strangle," say it with a hint of menace in your voice. If you say the word "heave," let your audience feel the onomatopoeic force behind it. If you say the word "bulldozer," make it sound like a titan earthmover, not like a baby with a shovel.

·      Tips from your Quick Study Public Speaking Guide: 

·      Clarify the goals of your speech.  Do you want your audience to:

o   Discontinue doing something they already do? 

o   Adopt a new policy or behavior? 

o   Continue doing something they already do? 

o   Avoid doing something they have not tried? 

·      Determine the kind of proposition you will support and prove. 

o   Proposition of FACT:  it did or did not happen; it exists or does not exist; it is true or false; it can be proven or disproved. 

o   A Proposition of VALUE:  attempts to prove the worth of something. 

o   A Proposition of POLICY:  asks the audience to support a new plan, or replace the old system or idea with the new plan you propose. 

·      Consider your audience’s opinion on the issue. 

o   Does your audience agree with your position? 

§  Use emotional appeals.  Emotional appeals motivate feelings like fear, hope, security, and guilt. 

§  Motivate them to take action. 

§  Ask them to make commitments in public. 

o   Does your audience disagree with your position? 

§  Stress common ground. 

§  Emphasize evidence & logic.  Logic involves your ability to validate your claims with your evidence in a systematic, believable manner. 

§  Establish your own credibility.  Qualifications, knowledge of the topic, concern and dynamic delivery skills show the audience you are credible. 

·      Consider your audience’s opinions, beliefs, and values. 

o   Opinion:  at attitude about your belief in something.

o   Belief:  a faith about whether something exists or does not exist. 

o   Value: a commitment to a belief that is central and acts as a life guide. 

·      Ethics:  All communication decisions have ethical consequences.